Since before there even was a 'Europe', Europe has been shaped by conflict. Because of this, there is no shortage of stories and artefacts here to satisfy our seemingly endless fascination with warfare. The continent is home to amazing museums that commemorate specific wars, honour the history of armed forces and explore the wider reasons for why humans fight each other.
Click through the gallery to discover the war museums to add to your next European travel itinerary…
Les Invalides, a grand complex of buildings associated with France’s military history, is a striking setting for a museum on the national army’s history. Inside you’ll find one of Europe’s largest collections of medieval arms and armour, as well as scores of miniature formations made up of thousands of toy soldiers. Perhaps the highlight, though, is the Charles de Gaulle Monument, a multimedia space dedicated to the World War II leader of the Free French. Don’t miss the Church of Les Invalides, also found in the complex, instantly recognisable by its golden dome: it is home to Napoleon’s tomb.
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Before even entering the building, an impressive collection of vehicles and weapons welcomes visitors on the lawn, including tanks, armoured troop carriers, field guns, missiles, helicopters and Soviet-era fighter jets. Across four floors, the museum then tells the story of Bulgaria’s military past framed in the context of conflict across Europe. Most of the space has been given to the period from the April Uprising of 1876 – a doomed attempt by Bulgarians to oust the Ottoman empire, which ended in slaughter – to World War I. While a little out of the way from central Sofia, the museum is well worth the trip and small entry fee.
Gdansk’s award-winning museum is a poignant reminder that few countries were as devastated by World War II as Poland. Its main exhibition, located deep underground, explores the build up to six years of conflict and occupation as well as its painful legacy. It also shows how the country witnessed the worst of the Nazis’ atrocities – with concentration camps like Auschwitz and Treblinka built in Poland – and shines a light on acts of heroism. The writer and resistance fighter Zofia Kossak is celebrated for helping Polish Jews escape the Holocaust. Opened in 2017, the museum’s leaning tower has become a landmark.
While Belgium’s armed forces have never been the biggest in Europe, this stunning museum dedicated to their history is punching above its weight. The iconic Historic Gallery is crammed with artefacts, uniforms, cannons and statues from the 19th century. Elsewhere, Belgian flags line the length of the curved corridor while the Aviation Hall features more than 100 craft in its exploration of a century of human flight – and how that changed warfare forever. A more curious room is the Russian Gallery filled with items that belonged to soldiers who fled the Russian Revolution in 1917, including a solid silver punch bowl weighing 53kg.
The coastal city of Portsmouth has been one of England's top naval ports since the 12th century and remains a Royal Navy base to this day. The history of warfare is everywhere at the Historic Dockyard. It’s all too easy to spend a whole day at the numerous attractions, and not see everything. There’s the Mary Rose Museum, about Henry VIII’s warship that sank in 1545 and was raised in 1982, the Submarine Museum and the National Museum of the Royal Navy. You can also look around the World War 1 ship, HMS M.33, the 19th-century steam-powered frigate, HMS Warrior, and the jewel in the crown, Lord Nelson’s HMS Victory.
The photograph of a smiling Anne Frank puts a human face to the Holocaust and her diary is a profound firsthand account of the atrocities. To get closer to her story, the housing block at Prinsengracht 263 in central Amsterdam – where the young Jewish girl, her family and four other people went into hiding – shows what people endured to survive Nazi persecution. You walk through the hidden entrance behind a bookcase into the Secret Annex, accompanied by a wonderful audio guide and quotes from Anne herself. Her famous diary is also on display. A moving experience and a popular one too, be sure to book online well in advance.
Within the bowels of Dresden Castle is one of the world’s largest collections of ceremonial weapons, armour and textiles. Less than 10% is on display, but that’s still around 1,300 items. These aren’t the battered and broken tools of war, dug up from some forgotten battlefield; these are glistening and pristine examples owned by royals and used in court ceremonies. Walls positively sparkle in the lights with all the helmets, swords, muskets and pistols adoring them, and in the evocatively named Hall of the Giants intricately decorated medieval suits of armour are seen in full display atop model horses, some set up in a joust.
With its immersive, sometimes overwhelming, experience of interactive displays and replicas, visitors would be wise to schedule a whole day here. In 1944, the Polish capital erupted into a brave but doomed uprising against the Nazis that ended with catastrophic fatality figures. The museum is a guide through each stage of the fight for liberation, covering every district of Warsaw even, and includes replicas of the sewers used by the resistance and the B24 Liberator that dropped vital supplies. When you leave, head to the surrounding Freedom Park to see the moving Wall of Remembrance.
Housed at the heart of Vienna’s Arsenal, a military complex from the 19th century, Heeresgeschichtliches Museum covers Austrian history from the rule of the Habsburgs to World War II, when the country became a part of Nazi Germany. Each room is beautifully laid out and focuses on a particular period, be it the Thirty Years’ War or the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the car he was in when he was shot is on display). Given that Austria is landlocked, one space that may surprise visitors is the Marine Hall. For centuries though, the country was actually a great naval power.
Learn everything about serving on a Royal Navy warship at this light cruiser turned floating museum, which is permanently moored on the River Thames just across from the Tower of London. There are nine decks to explore what life on board would have been like, from the engine and boiler rooms to the operations rooms and bridge. Here, you can sit in the captain’s chair. With a crew of nearly 1,000 men, there is lots to see – living quarters, the mess, sick bay, even a radio station – and many stories to hear. In the interactive gaming room, the Command Centre, you can take the helm of HMS Belfast, virtually, and lead the ship into battle.
When it comes to World War I museums, they don’t get any bigger than this. Extending over 32,292 square feet (3,000sqm), it contains nearly 70,000 items and documents – and, more remarkably, most of that collection previously belonged to a single man, the historian Jean-Pierre Verney. Around an hour from Paris, it is out of the way for the casual tourist, but the location is significant. There, the First Battle of the Marne was fought in September 1914. Now, Meaux’s collection commemorates that bloody conflict but also the advances it brought in other areas, like medicine, communications and the role of women in society.
Following renovation works, the Museo Storico Aeronautica Militare (MUSAM) has only been open to the public again since 2023. Based on the shores of Lake Bracciano, on the site of a former seaplane base, it is around 45 minutes from Rome. As soon as you enter, you’re treated to a relic of human flight: a hot-air balloon made by Frenchman Andre-Jacques Garnerin in 1804. Then across five hangars, the collection of aircraft ranges from the pioneering early days of aviation to jets used by the Italian Air Force. Look out for the Macchi M.C.72, a sleek red floatplane that set numerous world speed records in the 1930s.
During World War II, Malta was a strategic important piece of the Allied puzzle in the Mediterranean. As such, Italy and Germany laid siege in June 1940. Nearly two and a half years later though, they had still failed to seize the island. The central hub of the defensive efforts were the top-secret headquarters based in an underground tunnel complex some 131 feet (40m) below the Upper Barrakka Gardens in Valletta. Now, thanks to restorations that began in 2009, the previously clandestine Lascaris War Rooms has become a popular attraction, laid out as they would have been during the war.
Among the many sights to see at Edinburgh Castle – the palace, the crown jewels, the One o’clock Gun, the list goes on – make sure you find time for this museum. Scotland’s history of war tends to centre around their neighbours to the south, but the excellent galleries here bring to life more than 400 years of conflict. Along with broadswords and tartan are chemical warfare suits and recruitment posters, personal letters and keepsakes reveal the human stories behind the uniforms.
Five beaches, the town of Arromanches, Pointe du Hoc, Overlord Museum: anyone interested in D-Day is spoiled for choice for museums and significant sites in Normandy. In the small town of Sainte-Mere-Eglise is one of the real gems, a museum dedicated to the airborne operations that were of such vital importance to the Allied landings of 6 June 1944. Charting the paratroopers of the US 82nd and 101st Airborne, the displays are immersive and interactive so that it’s possible to get up close to aircraft like the Waco Glider and Douglas C-47. In a lovely touch, the individual exhibition spaces have also been shaped to resemble open parachutes.
Known as the ‘Saxon Bastille’, the mountaintop citadel above the town of Königstein has been an army barracks, a prison and now a tourist attraction. It’s easy to see why given its picturesque setting. At 23 acres, it is one of the largest fortresses in Europe. From the first construction in the 13th century, it was enlarged time and time again. Visitors here now are treated to a timeline of military architecture as they walk around. It also features an open-air war museum, which is associated with the Bundeswehr Museum of Military History in Dresden.
While resistance movements operated in countries all across Nazi-held Europe, arguably the best museum telling their story (and the story of the Dutch resistance, in particular) is Verzetsmuseum. The streets of wartime Amsterdam are recreated to evoke the atmosphere that resistance fighters lived in, working in the shadows and not knowing who to trust. With great sensitivity, the museum – through letters, photos, film and the audio tour – explores the lives of everyday people who resisted the Nazis and collaborated with them. Combine it with a visit to the Anne Frank House.
Around 2,000 years ago, the most powerful war machine in the world was the Roman army. It marched across Europe until the empire reached its northernmost frontier in the wilderness of Britain, where Hadrian’s Wall was built. Today, among the ruins of forts to explore (including Vindolanda and Magna) this museum shows what it was really like to be a Roman soldier, from training to discipline and equipment to battles. For younger visitors, the treats are the 20-minute immersive film about a soldier named Aquila, and an interactive Roman classroom complete with holographic teacher.
Its name meaning ‘Fortress of Finland’, this sea fortress on a cluster of islands is accessible only by ferry. The 20-minute journey, however, offers wonderful views of Helsinki and with Suomenlinna boasting six museums, there is plenty to see and do. You can learn the history of the fortress – despite just being off the coast of the Finnish capital, it was the Swedes who began construction in 1748 – and explore Finland’s roles in war throughout the 20th century. It’s also possible to go inside a unique piece of Finnish history: the last submarine, Vesikko, the only survivor of the ban on operating subs imposed after World War II.
To hear the words ‘Norway’ and ‘war’, you’d be forgiven for immediately jumping to images of marauding Vikings. This fascinating museum based in the Akershus Fortress, however, focusses on the story since the establishment of the Norwegian Armed Forces. The huge collection of weapons and machinery to explore – and tanks and boats to walk through – provide insights into the role of the military across four centuries up to the present day. And for those wanting more history, why not take a guided tour of the medieval fortress or head to the Resistance Museum to learn about Norway’s fight against Nazi occupation?
The Museu de Marinha charts the Portuguese navy’s centuries-long position as one of the world’s maritime superpowers. At the entrance, you’re greeted by a statue of Henry the Navigator, the prince who got Portuguese exploration moving, before wandering through the halls to see exquisite models of ships that illustrate how the navy developed. Enter another space and you’re confronted with a mighty collection of ornate royal barges. Of course, the great explorer Vasco de Gama is a main feature here. Displayed artefacts include his portable altar and the wooden figurehead of the archangel Raphael, which he took on the voyage that made him the first European to reach India by sea.
This charming bijou museum near Thessaloniki is dedicated to a brief but important chapter in the annals of war in Greece. From 1912 to 1913, the Balkan states of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria fought the powerful but declining Ottoman Empire and won. Now, the well-preserved mansion house used for negotiations between Greek and Ottoman representatives welcomes visitors to learn about the conflict and its aftermath. While smaller than other museums on this list, it boasts an impressive collection of military decorations and weapons from both sides (including Mannlicher and Mauser rifles).
The star-shaped Fort St Elmo on Malta was besieged by the Ottomans in 1565 and attacked by Italian forces during World War II. Those two landmark events for the Mediterranean island are focal points for the National War Museum that is now on the site. It makes for a varied history lesson, with knights’ armour from the Order of St John representing the former, and a Gloster Gladiator biplane and the jeep used by US President Roosevelt on display for the latter. There is also the George Cross awarded by the British not to one person, but the entire island for the citizens’ bravery during the Italian bombardment of 1940 to 1942.
Underneath the streets of Whitehall, an underground system of tunnels and rooms became the nerve centre of the British government in World War II. “This is the room from which I will direct the war,” said prime minister Winston Churchill. Open to the public since 1984, it is possible to wander the corridors, peruse the map room (where military operations were planned) and communication room that allowed Churchill to talk to the US president (which was disguised as a private toilet). You can also marvel at the five-foot-thick (1.5m) slab of concrete that protected the complex. The attached Churchill Museum is a great place to get to know the wartime leader.
Greek helmets and Roman swords; armour that belonged to medieval knights; World War II tanks and a rocket-launching-truck called a Katyusha. Serbia’s Military Museum, based in Belgrade Fortress, spans several millennia of human conflict thanks to thousands of artefacts. The sections not to be missed, however, focus on the more modern history of the former Yugoslavia – which included modern-day Serbia – and the nation’s military role in war at the dawn of the 21st century.
During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), the city of Cartagena was a major naval base for the Republicans, which made it an appealing target for General Franco’s Nationalist forces. In response to horrific bombardments, a network of shelters was dug out to protect the city’s civilian population. While the shelters represent a small part of a bigger conflict, itself often overshadowed by World War II, tours have proven to be powerful reminders of the human cost of war. A trip through them includes a film of survivors of the civil war telling their personal stories of survival.
The Latvian capital used to be ringed by a series of fortified towers, but only one remains: the Powder Tower. Luckily for us, the former gunpowder store (the clue was in the name) has been turned into a museum to tell the story of the country’s military past, especially the chapters during the 20th century when Latvia fought for independence not once, but twice. Going right up to the present day, Latvia’s involvement in UN peacekeeping missions is also represented in the displays and artefacts. Walking around, it is clear why Powder Tower was chosen as the location for a war museum, since the walls are embedded with cannonballs.
What was once a Cold War bunker, to protect Albania’s communist leadership from the most destructive form of war yet devised (an exchange of nuclear weapons), this place has since become a history and contemporary art museum. Opened in 2014, it allows visitors to walk through the underground rooms and learn the history of the country under the regime of Enver Hoxha. Bunk’Art 1 is a bus ride out of Tirana, so a more convenient option is Bunk’Art 2 in the centre of town: another bunker turned into a museum, this time with an unpolished exploration of the horrors of Hoxha’s communist regime until its overthrow in 1985.
IWM is one of the world’s leading war museums for a reason. Housed in the magnificent building that used to be the psychiatric hospital known as Bedlam, the main atrium is a feast for the eyes with a Spitfire and Harriet jet hanging from the ceiling, while a huge V2 rocket towers over the space. The galleries on the world wars expertly take you through the chronology of events while using its array of artefacts to tell the human stories of the conflicts. The new Blavatnik Art, Film and Photography Galleries brings focus to the art that war can inspire with haunting paintings and photographs lining the walls.
An anti-war museum first opened in Berlin in 1925 to highlight why it was so important for the Great War of 1914-18 never to be repeated. Of course, the German capital would be at the centre of conflict a lot more in the 20th century. Following another world war, the Holocaust, and the city’s division by a wall in the Cold War, the current incarnation of the Anti-Kriegs-Museum opened in 1982. A small space run by volunteers and mostly financed by donations, its goal is to promote peace through acknowledgement of the disastrous consequences of warfare across the globe.
Now discover abandoned World War II places that the world forgot about