Europe boasts some of the world's oldest cities, with the most ancient dating back thousands of years. The ultimate survivors, these enduring heritage hubs have seen it all and lived to tell the tale. From meticulously preserved time capsules to modern metropolises that blend tradition and innovation, each is a unique portal to the past. Here, we compare historic and contemporary images of the continent's most venerable cities. Think of it like a game of 'spot the difference'.
Click or scroll through the gallery to see how much (or how little) these European cities have changed...
Joint European City of Culture in 2019 with Matera, Plovdiv was first settled a staggering 8,000 years ago, making it one of the contenders for the continent's oldest continuously inhabited city. Over the millennia, Plovdiv has been home to Thracians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Ottomans and Bulgarians. Each of these groups have left their mark on its cultural and architectural heritage. This undated photo, which appears to have been taken in the late 19th century, shows the once sparsely populated western side of the city. On top of Danov Hill, at the centre-right of the shot, is Plovdiv's Clock Tower. The structure dates back to 1623 but was rebuilt in 1812.
Bulgaria's second-largest city has seen its population mushroom since the late 19th century, increasing from 24,053 in 1880 to 346,790 in 2024. Needless to say, Plovdiv is a lot more built-up these days. Ruski Boulevard, seen in the foreground of the shot, is now lined with apartment buildings. Green space is at a relative premium. The good news is that the city has retained much of its historical fabric, from its Roman ruins and Ottoman-era mansions to the lofty Clock Tower still standing on Danov Hill.
Love this? Follow our Facebook page for more travel inspiration
Argos was first inhabited way back in 5,000 BC. It rose to become a major centre for the Mycenaean civilisation during the Bronze Age and was later a prominent city in Classical Greece and Ancient Rome. Like Plovdiv, Argos eventually became part of the Ottoman Empire before the formation of modern Greece. This illustration of the city by Italian Franciscan friar Vincenzo Coronelli dates from 1688.
The hilltop Larissa Castle survives to this day. Described as a shining symbol of the city, the acropolis has stood watch over Argos since as early as the 13th century BC, though it was reconstructed several times over the course of its long history. The form it takes today dates from the Middle Ages, though the cylindrical tower was destroyed by an explosion around the year 1700. Amazingly, the fortress was in continuous use from prehistoric times to World War II. These days, it's one of an array of historical sites to explore in a city brimming with ancient ruins. A theatre from 300 BC that once sat 20,000 spectators is a major highlight.
Europe's oldest continuously inhabited capital city, Athens became a permanent settlement before 3000 BC. The cradle of Western civilisation, Classical Athens, peaked in power in the 5th century BC and was the birthplace of democracy. Its philosophy, art and architecture have shaped the course of world history. This is how the city looked in AD 130, when it was under Roman rule. In the centre-right is the ancient Acropolis, while the newly completed Temple of Olympian Zeus can be seen bottom-left.
This is the same part of the city today. A modern metropolis, with a population of 3.6 million in the wider area, Athens has seen a lot of changes since it was first settled thousands of years ago. The Acropolis is still there, though its roof and much of its ancient walls were obliterated by the Venetian army in 1687. These days, many of its prized sculptures reside in foreign museums like the British Museum and Louvre. The Temple of Olympian Zeus has fared even worse over the years, but both remain awe-inspiring landmarks nonetheless.
Nicosia began around 3000 BC but didn't really get going until the Byzantine period, when the city became the capital of Cyprus. It then passed to the French Lusignan kings, followed by the Venetians, Ottomans and British. The city's architecture reflects its mix of influences. This etching of Nicosia dates from 1878, back when the city still fit within its medieval walls. You can see the Selimiye Mosque with its twin minarets. Built as a church in the 13th century, it was converted into a mosque during the Ottoman era. The towers to its right are part of the Faneromeni Church, once the city's biggest church, and the Haydarpasha Mosque, which also started out as a church.
Nicosia became the capital of independent Cyprus in 1960 but has been divided between the Greek Cypriot south and Turkish north since 1974. While the city has endured its fair share of conflict, much of its heritage has thankfully been preserved. The Selimiye Mosque still towers above the city, as does the Haydarpasha Mosque just to its right in the photo. The Faneromeni church has survived too. Its bell tower, which was constructed in 1872, is visible in the foreground of this photo. Nicosia's city walls, which are around 500 years old, also remain largely intact.
Widely considered the oldest continuously inhabited city in Western Europe and the most ancient port, Cádiz was founded in 1100 BC as a trading colony by Phoenician sailors from modern-day Lebanon. The city is said to have been named after Neptune's son and built between the Pillars of Hercules. The Andalusian maritime hub had its heyday in the 18th century when it became the number one port for ships sailing to and from the New World. Cádiz was the richest city in Spain during this period and many of its standout buildings date from the era. The city even served as the nation's capital in the early 1810s. By the 1860s, which this illustration dates from, its powers were fading.
Cádiz's fortunes picked up again in the 20th century. The port expanded and the arrival of tourism led to a construction boom, though many of the city's Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical and Gothic buildings from the 18th and 19th centuries remain, including its splendid cathedral. Cádiz's fortifications, which were built in the 17th and 18th centuries to fend off attacks by foreign navies, pirates and other foes, are largely intact. These include the Castle of San Sebastián. Built in 1706, you can see the historical landmark on the island in the photo's foreground.
Lisbon's origins go all the way back to at least 1000 BC. The city was settled by the Phoenicians, Romans, Visigoths and Moors before becoming the capital of the Kingdom of Portugal in 1255. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Lisbon was one of the world's richest cities off the back of the Age of Discovery and was still riding high in the early 1750s when this picture was produced. The image shows the Ribeira Palace, the main residence of the Portuguese king, with the Tagus River in the foreground and the medieval city beyond. Something unthinkable, however, was about to change everything.
On All Saints' Day 1755, a megathrust earthquake followed by a tsunami and hellish fires killed tens of thousands and almost completely destroyed the city. The Ribeira Palace was never rebuilt. The king, so traumatised by the disaster, lived in luxe tents and pavilions for the rest of his life. An elegant Neoclassical Lisbon did emerge, however, reconstructed under the guidance of the powerful Marquis of Pombal. The 'Pombaline' Commerce Plaza, Lisbon's main square, occupies the site of the former palace. Surrounded by government buildings, its layout mirrors the former royal courtyard.
According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 BC by the legendary twins Romulus and Remus. Archaeologists, though, have found evidence of settlement from before this time. Later to become the epicentre of a huge empire, Ancient Rome reached the peak of its prestige in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD when its population stood at around one million. This picture shows how the Forum, the core of Ancient Rome (centre of the image), the Colosseum (top-left) and the surrounding areas would have looked in AD 312.
Fast forward to 2024 and a remarkable number of Ancient Roman structures remain in the Eternal City, from grand ruins to largely intact monuments. Buildings of the Forum that have survived include the Temple of Castor and Pollux, the Arch of Titus and the Mamertine Prison. The Colosseum is among the best preserved of Rome's ancient monuments. Experts put this down to its ultra-tough Roman concrete foundations. In fact, ingenious Roman concrete, which hardens over time, is likely the key to the survival of many of the civilisation's more complete structures.
Another ancient city that owes its existence to the Phoenicians, Mdina was first inhabited around 700 BC. When it later became part of the Roman Empire, Mdina was the site of the Governor's Palace and is said to have been visited by St Paul. Centuries down the line, the Normans encircled the city with extensive fortifications. Catastrophe struck in 1693 when an earthquake damaged many of the buildings. Swathes of the city were subsequently rebuilt in a Baroque style, most notably the Cathedral of St Paul on the city's main square. The famous landmark is shown here circa 1850.
Mdina has barely changed since the middle of the 19th century. Once the capital of Malta, the city has a population of only 250 these days. Its glorious buildings remain in situ though, including the cathedral, and the city walls have certainly stood the test of time. Dubbed the 'Silent City', Mdina is a car-free haven. A combination of tranquil atmosphere and beguiling architecture have made it a perennially popular tourist attraction. The city's appeal has also been boosted in a major way thanks to its appearance in season one of Game of Thrones, where it doubled up for King's Landing before Dubrovnik got the gig.
The city now called Istanbul was founded as Byzantium in 667 BC. Strategically positioned on the Bosporus Strait and split between Europe and Asia, it was christened Constantinople in AD 330 and became capital of the Roman Empire (and later, the Byzantine Empire). This visual recreates Constantinople around the late 6th century, back when it was the world's largest city. On the left is the Hippodrome, an arena for horse and chariot-racing that could accommodate 60,000 spectators. To its upper-right is the domed Hagia Sophia, which was built between AD 532 and AD 537 to be the city's leading church.
In 1453, the city fell to the Ottomans, becoming the capital of their sprawling empire. The Hippodrome, which was in a poor state of repair, was plundered for its stone. Elsewhere, the Hagia Sophia was repurposed as a mosque and had minarets added to the structure. The Hagia Sophia was converted into a museum in 1935, five years after the city was renamed Istanbul, but then reverted to its former use as a mosque in 2020. It remains Istanbul's crown jewel. The Blue Mosque in the pic's foreground comes a close second. It dates from the 17th century. The site of the Hippodrome, now Sultanahmet Square, is the tree-lined piazza in the centre-left of the image.
Marseille's roots go back to 600 BC when Greek settlers founded the city as a port and trading hub. Roman rule came next and, from this point on, the city enjoyed several centuries of fierce independence before joining the Kingdom of France in the 15th century. Marseille's emblematic Old Port is shown here in 1755. To the right of the image is the defensive Fort Saint-Jean, which dates from the 1660s. The city's cathedral is on the left. The tower was added in the 14th century but the church itself has existed since the 4th century.
Looking at the Old Port area today, Fort Saint-Jean has survived despite parts of the structure being destroyed during World War II. A new and much larger cathedral, in a lavish Romanesque style, was constructed in the 19th century. The old one has survived. It's to the right of the new cathedral in this photo, but the 14th-century tower isn't visible. The most striking change is the addition of the Museum of the Civilisations of Europe and the Mediterranean's J4 edifice. Opened on reclaimed land in 2013, the futuristic cube, which is linked to Fort Saint-Jean via a dramatic footbridge, makes quite the statement.
The City of Light sparked to life in the 3rd century BC, starting out as the Celtic settlement of Lutetia. After falling under Roman and then Frankish control, the city known as Paris by this time became the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of France in 843. This view of the Île de la Cité, the heart of Paris, dates from 1650. The medieval Saint-Chapelle church, which is surrounded by the buildings of the Palais de Justice, dominates the image.
Paris is a very different city these days, but it certainly isn't lacking in historical sites. Saint-Chapelle still stands, though it's on its fifth spire now. The Palais de Justice, however, was completely rebuilt in the 18th century. Haussmann buildings from the 19th century rather than medieval mansions line the right bank of the Seine (actually on the left in the photo). In the distance are the Eiffel Tower, completed in 1889, and the skyscrapers of La Défense, the city's ultramodern financial district.
Barcelona was founded by the Romans as the colony of Barcino at the end of the 1st century BC, though evidence has been unearthed indicating the area was first settled in the Neolithic period. It later came under Moorish rule, before flourishing as a port and cultural centre under the Crown of Aragon during the late Middle Ages. Here's a vista of the city in 1563 from the vantage point of Montjuïc hill. It shows what is now called the Old Town, surrounded by two sets of city walls. Notable buildings visible here include Barcelona's Gothic cathedral and the royal Chapel of Santa Àgata, which was built in 1302.
Barcelona has massively expanded over the years. The city walls were demolished in the 19th century and a new district called Eixample took shape, graced with fabulous buildings designed by Modernista architects like Antoni Gaudí. Yet while Barcelona has moved with the times, its medieval Old Town is packed with reminders of the distant past. The cathedral remains, albeit with fancy towers added in 1913, as does the Chapel of Santa Àgata and several other medieval buildings featured in the previous image. Fragments of the old walls, dating as far back as the Roman era, can also still be seen in parts of the city.
Carved out of the local rock, the cave houses of the Sassi di Matera, which are made up of two Sasso districts within the age-old city of Matera in southern Italy, have been inhabited since at least 7,000 BC and reportedly as far back as the Paleolithic period (pre 10,000 BC). The cathedral at the top of this hill was added in the 13th century, with many of the other structures in the city dating from thousands of years earlier. The picture here was taken in 1930.
As you can see, the city looks almost exactly the same. It has been treated to a makeover though. Blighted by poverty for much of its existence, Matera's fortunes turned around in the late 20th century after it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This prompted the Italian government to bankroll a number of restoration and infrastructure projects. Artisans moved into the renovated cave dwellings, and a plethora of bars, restaurants, short lets and hotels opened their doors. Tourism numbers spiked in 2014 when Matera won its bid to become the joint 2019 European Capital of Culture. Today, the revived city is a flourishing cultural destination that draws visitors from all over.
Trier was founded by the Roman emperor Augustus around 15 BC. A coveted location on the Moselle River helped cement its success and the city thrived under Roman rule. It also fared well in subsequent centuries, when it was under the control of the Franks and Holy Roman Empire. By 1879, when this picture is from, Trier was part of modern Germany and had grown considerably. Relics of its glorious Roman past remained though. The most spectacular being the Porta Nigra, the city's magnificent Roman gate, built in AD 170.
The 'Rome of the North ' was heavily bombed during World War II but the Porta Nigra miraculously escaped destruction, though it is pockmarked in places with bullet holes from the conflict. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Porta Nigra is the best-preserved Roman city gate north of the Alps and a testament to Trier's long history and extraordinary resilience.
Founded in AD 43 as the Roman settlement of Londinium, London is almost 2,000 years old. The city became England's capital under the Normans, who built what would become known as the White Tower, the centrepiece of the Tower of London, the city's fortress, in 1066. The tower is shown here in the late 14th century, its whitewashed walls gleaming against the surrounding grey battlements, turrets and gate towers.
London grew to become the biggest city in the world from 1812 to 1918, and its astonishing expansion over the centuries has resulted in a fascinating mishmash of architectural styles. Very few medieval buildings remain due to the Great Fire of 1666, the Blitz, modernising planners and numerous other factors. But the White Tower made it through, though it's no longer white. London's oldest intact building was actually first whitewashed in 1240 during the reign of Henry III. That's when it got its name. But the practice stopped in the 17th century under Charles II, whose master architect Christopher Wren preferred the original stonework. The name, however, stuck.